Biology and Geology S E C O N D A R Y 1 This book is a collective work , conceived, designed and created by the Editorial depar tment at Santillana , under the super vision of Teresa Grence. WRITERS Luis Fernández Mariano García Mario García Annabel Maybank Henar Méndez EDITORS Begoña Barroso Ana Piqueres Heather Sutton Ros Walford Dave Wile EDITORIAL MANAGERS Nuria Corredera Juan Ignacio Medina PROJECT DIRECTOR Antonio Brandi BILINGUAL PROJECT DIRECTOR Margarita España Do not write in this book. Do all the activities in your notebook.
Contents Uni t Learning s i tuat i on T H E C H A L L E N G E Susta inabl e Deve l opment Goa l s (SDGs) and the i r target s The science project 8 1 Earth and landscapes 16 Make a proposal to restore a landscape SDG 11: Sustainable cities and communities Targets 11.4 and 11.5 2 The geosphere 34 Plan a tour around your city to identify rocks and minerals SDG 12: Responsible consumption and production Target 12.2 3 The atmosphere and the hydrosphere 54 Design a workshop about protecting the air and water SDG 13: Climate action Target 13.3 4 The biosphere 76 Design posters that explain why living things are important SDG 15: Life on land Target 15.5 5 The Monera, Protoctist and Fungi kingdoms 96 Make a microorganisms calendar SDG 3: Good health and well-being Target 3.3 6 The Plant kingdom 114 Organise a plant treasure hunt SDG 15: Life on land Target 15.2
Essent i a l knowl edge Sc i ent i f i c work Cr i t i ca l think ing The scientific method The laboratory. Safety rules in the laboratory Fieldwork Great scientists 1. Earth 2. The Earth-Moon system 3. Earth's systems and landforms 4. Landscapes 5. Natural hazards and human activity - How does the angle of the Sun's rays affect the temperature of the Earth's surface? - Represent the movements of the Earth 1. The Earth's interior 2. Minerals 3. The origin of rocks 4. Rocks and their uses 5. Responsible use of mineral resources - Identify minerals - Identify different types of rocks Can gem therapy solve problems that medicine cannot? 1. The atmosphere 2. The functions of the atmosphere 3. The pollution of the atmosphere 4. The hydrosphere 5. Water consumption and its consequences 6. Sustainable water management - Discover the properties of air - Make a model of the water cycle Is climate change a temporary phenomenon? 1. Living things 2. Cells 3. Life processes 4. The classification of living things 5. The five kingdoms - Look at plant and animal cells using an optical microscope Can we sleep with plants in the bedroom? 1. Microorganisms 2. The Monera kingdom 3. The Protoctist kingdom 4. The Fungi kingdom 5. Viruses - Apply the scientific method to yogurt - Observe protoctists under a microscope - Compare fresh yeast and chemical yeast Is the Río Tinto red due to pollution from mining? 1. The characteristics of plants 2. The life processes of plants 3. Plants without seeds 4. Plants with seeds 5. The importance of plants - Identify trees by their leaves - Study a flower and a fruit Can apricots be obtained from a plum tree?
Uni t Learning s i tuat i on T H E C H A L L E N G E Susta inabl e Deve l opment Goa l s (SDGs) and the i r target s 7 Invertebrates 136 Make a filing system with index cards of invertebrates SDG 14: Life below water Target 14.2 8 Vertebrates 160 Make a video about threatened animals SDG 15: Life on land Target 15.5 9 Ecosystems 182 Prepare an excursion to a protected natural area SDG 15: Life on land Target 15.1 Nature atlas 205 Contents
Essent i a l knowl edge Sc i ent i f i c work Cr i t i ca l think ing 1. Invertebrates 2. Poriferans 3. Cnidarians 4. Worms 5. Molluscs 6. Arthropods 7. Echinoderms - Study the characteristics of a mussel - Identify the different groups of insects Are bees the only insects that pollinate plants? 1. Vertebrates 2. Fish 3. Amphibians 4. Reptiles 5. Birds 6. Mammals - Study a bony fish Is it true that farm hens are not very intelligent? 1. The components of an ecosystem 2. The factors in an ecosystem 3. Terrestrial ecosystems 4. Aquatic ecosystems 5. Soil as an ecosystem 6. Changes to ecosystems 7. Ecosystem conservation - Analyse a trophic network - Study the animals in soil Are most forest fires in Spain started deliberately?
Education is a long road that lasts a lifetime. Follow the WORLD MAKERS learning path to create a more equal, fair and sustainable world. Learning path LEARNING SITUATION. THE CHALLENGE 1 THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS 2 Remember what you already know about the topic, your previous knowledge acquired in previous years, in other units or in your own daily life. Think about an everyday life situation and put yourself in the place of the characters who present it. Contribute to the achievement of one or several targets of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Use your book to find the answers. Look for reliable information on the internet, in other books, from the people around you… Analyse it and then draw your conclusions to answer the questions. Critical thinking. Discuss whether the information is true or not. In the TRUE OR FALSE? section, you will find suggestions for learning how to create truthful content and for deconstructing fake news and myths. Research, think and then answer the questions that will help you complete the challenge and acquire core skills. 4. The Fungi kingdom Compare fresh yeast and chemical yeast You are going to test carbon dioxide production in fresh yeast (a paste of live fungus cells) and in chemical yeast. Material Chemical yeast and fresh yeast Four test tubes Sugar and water The importance of fungi Fungi cause diseases in humans, animals and plants. However, they are also ver y important in other areas: The environment. They help to recycle organic matter in the soil . They play a fundamental role in the formation of mature soils. Food . Many mushrooms are edible and form part of our diet. However, others are toxic and can be deadly. Yeasts are used to produce bread and alcoholic drinks, such as wine and beer. This process is called fermentation. Yeast uses carbohydrates and produces carbon dioxide and other substances. Health. In 1928, Alexander Fleming identified a mould , Penicillium notatum. It released a substance that killed the bacteria growing around it. This substance was penicillin , an antibiotic that revolutionised medicine. Moulds are also used to produce some cheeses, such as blue cheese. Steps 1. Fill the four test tubes halfway with warm water. 2. Label the tubes 1 to 4 so that you can identify them. 3. Then add the items in the table below to each tube. 4. Finally, stir them and write down what happens in your notebook. Conclusions 20 Were bubbles produced in all the samples? Did the samples take the same amount of time to produce the bubbles? Explain the results in a table. Tube 1 Tube 2 Tube 3 Tube 4 Warm water Warm water Warm water Warm water Fresh yeast Fresh yeast Chemical yeast Chemical yeast Tablespoon of sugar … Tablespoon of sugar … 104 ES0000000100241 959327_Unidad05_105215.indd 104 28/12/21 9:10 4 Heterotrophic organisms Heterotrophs cannot produce their own organic substances, so they get it by feeding on other living things. Heterotrophic organisms include animals, fungi , some bacteria and other microorganisms, such as protozoa . Parasites feed on other living things, and they cause harm. For example, ticks bite dogs so that they can feed on their blood , and this causes wounds. Herbivores feed on plants. Omnivores feed on plants and animals. Carnivores feed on other animals. Detritivores are animals that feed on the remains of other living things. For example, millipedes feed on fallen leaves. There are also some special types of heterotrophic organisms, such as: Can we sleep with plants in the bedroom? You might have heard that it is not a good idea to sleep with plants in the room because they use the oxygen. Plants produce their own food through photosynthesis. During this process, they release oxygen into the atmosphere. Because this requires light, it cannot take place at night. However, the process of respiration continues, during which plants take in oxygen from the air and release carbon dioxide. But the oxygen that a plant consumes is a tiny amount. It is much less than an animal needs, so a plant will never consume all the oxygen in a room. In 1989, NASA published an article about the benefits of indoor plants. Look for information about it. Then write down the benefits of some of the plants mentioned in the article. Caterpillar Shrew Badger Decomposers include fungi and some bacteria that break down the organic substances left by detritivores. OR FALSE T R U E ? 81 ES0000000100241 959327_Unidad04_104476.indd 81 28/12/21 9:09 Do experiments and carry out simple practical activities. Complete the steps by applying what you have learnt. Acquire essential knowledge from content explained in a very clear way and with strong visual support: photos, drawings, diagrams, etc. Make a list of ten living things. Then list another ten objects that have never been alive. What do all living things have in common? WORK WITH THE IMAGE - What life process is shown in the photo on the right? - What type of reproduction involves two living things of different sexes? - What other life processes are there? WORK WITH THE IMAGE . Look at the photo on the previous page. - Why are bees important for people? - Bees are also important for plants. Explain why. WORK WITH THE IMAGE - How many living things can you see in the photo on the left? - How are they different from each other? How many groups of living things do you know? Give an example from each group. L E T ' S G E T S TA R T E D Sarah likes to know what is happening in the world . She is worried because she has heard about living things in danger of extinction . She thinks that all living things are important. People need to be made aware of the problem so they can protect them. For this reason , Sarah suggests that her class creates some posters to explain the importance of living things in dif ferent habitats. The murals can be displayed at school and at a cultural centre nearby. The biosphere 4 Design posters that explain why living things are important. CHALLE NGE IN THIS UNIT. . . 1 Living things 2 Cells 3 Life processes 4 The classification of living things 5 The five kingdoms Take act ion Biodiversity is essential and for many reasons we have a duty to protect it. This challenge looks at the ways living things are useful to people, and their importance to other living things. Target 15.5: "Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species." L E A R N I N G S C E N A R I O 73 72 ES0000000100241 959327_Unidad04_104476.indd 73 28/12/21 8:58 Eukar yotic cells Prokar yotic cells Cells have many dif ferent shapes and sizes. They are classified into two groups: prokar yotic cells and eukar yotic cells. Both groups have some structures in common : 6 Explain what cells are. Why are they such an important part of living things? 7 How are cells classified? Give an example of a living thing for each cell type. 8 What structures do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have in common? How are they different? 9 What structures are only found in plant cells? 10 WORK WITH THE IMAGE. Look at the photo on the right. Find out what type of cells these living things are made of. Then describe the cells. 4 2. Cells The smallest and simplest cells. They are found in bacteria, which are unicellular organisms. These cells are much bigger and more complex than prokar yotic cells. Their cytoplasm has lots of organelles. Their genetic material is surrounded by a membrane that forms a nucleus. They are found in all multicellular organisms and in some unicellular organisms. Animals and plants have many dif ferent types of cells. The cells that carr y out the same function join together to form tissues. For example, muscular tissue and ner ve tissue in animals. Mitochondria. Organelles that are involved in cellular respiration . Cell membrane Cytoplasm. It can be with or without organelles. Cell membrane Cytoplasm Vacuole Cell membrane Mitochondria Chloroplasts. Organelles that are involved in photosynthesis. Cell wall . It surrounds the cell and keeps its shape. Nucleus Cytoplasm Organelles Organelles Nucleus Genetic material . It is dispersed in the cytoplasm. Cell wall . It is a rigid cover around the cell membrane. It protects the cell and keeps its shape. Eukar yotic animal cells Cells have a spherical or an irregular shape. The nucleus is located in the centre. They do not have a cell wall . They do not have chloroplasts. Eukar yotic plant cells Cells have a prism shape. The nucleus is pushed to one side of the cell by large organelles called vacuoles. They have a cell wall . They have chloroplasts. Plant cells seen through a microscope Animal cells seen through a microscope Genetic material . It is formed of a type of nucleic acid called DNA. It contains instructions that help the cell to function correctly. It also passes genetic information on to new cells that are created through reproduction . Cell membrane. A thin layer that covers the cell . It regulates the passing of substances into and out of the cell . Cytoplasm. A jelly-like f luid , made of water and many dissolved substances. It contains organelles or complex structures that have dif ferent functions. Bacterium seen through a microscope CHALLENGE 77 76 ES0000000100241 959327_Unidad04_104476.indd 76-77 28/12/21 8:58 4 5. The five kingdoms 22 WORK WITH THE IMAGE. Look at the photo and answer the questions: a) What does the picture show? b) What living things are there in this product? 23 Plants, algae, and some bacteria share one characteristic that is very important for all living things. What is this characteristic? Why it is important? 24 As well as animals and plants, there are other important living things. They are grouped into three kingdoms. Answer these questions to complete the challenge: a) What are the other kingdoms called? b) Identify a living thing from each of those kingdoms that is useful for humans in different areas, such as health, food, industry, etc. 25 What are yeasts? Find out about one type of yeast. Give its scientific name and explain why it is useful. All living things, from tiny bacteria to ver y large whales, are classified into five kingdoms: Animal kingdom Vertebrates and invertebrates belong to this kingdom. Nutrition : heterotrophic Cell type: eukar yotic Organisation : multicellular, with tissues Mobility : most are mobile Plant kingdom Fungi kingdom Protoctist kingdom Monera kingdom Includes mosses, ferns and f lowering plants. Nutrition : autotrophic Cell type: eukar yotic Organisation : multicellular, with tissues Mobility : immobile Includes yeasts, moulds and fungi . Nutrition : heterotrophs Cell type: eukar yotic Organisation : unicellular or multicellular, without tissues Mobility : immobile This kingdom includes protozoa and algae. Nutrition : autotrophic or heterotrophic Cell type: eukar yotic Organisation : unicellular or multicellular, without tissues Mobility : mobile or immobile This is the bacteria kingdom. Nutrition : autotrophic or heterotrophic Cell type: prokar yotic Organisation : unicellular Mobility : mobile or immobile Biodiversity Biodiversity is all the living things that live in a specific place, countr y or within the biosphere. Nobody knows the exact number of species that inhabit the Earth . Scientists have identified around 1.5 million species. Bacteria , from the Monera kingdom, are not included in these figures because scientists do not know how to count them. In the Fungi and Protoctist kingdoms there are more unknown species than those that are known. CHALLENGE Insects 840 000 Molluscs 70 000 Fungi 70 000 Protoctists 80 000 Vertebrates 46 500 Other arthropods 80 000 Flowering plants 230 000 Mosses and ferns 26 500 Other invertebrates 80 000 87 86 ES0000000100241 959327_Unidad04_104476.indd 87 28/12/21 8:58 ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE 4 CORE SKILLS 3
With the STUDY NOTES you can revise the key concepts of each unit and check your progress. Gi ant s t hat watch t he sky The Gran Telescopio Canarias (GTC) The GTC is currently the largest and one of the most advanced infrared optical telescopes in the world . It is found in one of the best locations in the Northern Hemisphere, the Roque de los Muchachos Obser vator y (La Palma , Islas Canarias). Its primar y mirror consists of 36 hexagonal segments acting together as a single mirror with a diameter of 10.4 metres. Thanks to this large mirror and advanced engineering, the GTC is among the best performing telescopes for astronomical research . In its first 12 years of obser vation , the GTC has allowed us to see the cosmos as never before. There is almost no type of astronomical object that the GTC has not explored with its obser vations: extrasolar planets, evolved stars, black holes, primitive stars, magnetic fields in the centre of the galaxy, faint galaxies, dark matter, gravitational lenses and highly energetic explosive events, among others. IAC Bulletin (Adapted) “The scientific results obtained with the GTC,” says Rafael Rebolo, current director of the IAC, “are exceptional, not only for the quantity of data obtained and scientific articles published, but also for their quality and impact. In its work carrying out frontier science, certain observations stand out, such as the detection of the galaxy UG00180, at a distance of 500 million light years, whose images are the furthest taken of any galaxy from the Earth.” Francisco Sánchez is the founder and first director of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (IAC). He promoted and developed the GTC project. Several institutions in Mexico and the University of Florida (USA) collaborate with this Spanish project. The IAC includes the obser vator y on La Palma and the Teide Obser vator y on Tenerife. They contain the largest collection of optical and infrared facilities for astrophysics inside the European Union . Franc i s co Sánchez 1936. Toledo. Spain Astrophysicist The GTC wa s i naugu rated i n 2009 > Find out why its presence on the island of La Palma makes Roque de los Muchachos a very important place for astronomy. 4 Study the information and apply your essential knowledge to different contexts and situations. Do the activities in the ORGANISE YOUR IDEAS and CHECK YOUR PROGRESS sections. Critical thinking. Analyse a news article and answer the questions that will help you to think about and show your reasoning. Make connections between Biology and Geology and other subject areas to help you understand the world you live in. Complete the challenge and tell other people what you have achieved. Share the results with the people around you. In this way, you are contributing to the construction of a better world for everyone. Atlantic forest • The Atlantic forest ecosystem is found in regions with an Atlantic climate in the northern half of the peninsula. • It consists mainly of deciduous trees, especially beech and oak. Other species include birch and ash. Under the trees, shrubs, ferns and moss grow. • The fauna includes rare species, such as the Iberian brown bear and the capercaillie. Deer, wild boars and many types of woodpeckers also live here. Mediterranean forest • In regions with a Mediterranean climate, the summers are warm and dry and winters are cool and wet. • The vegetation consists of forests of evergreen trees with small, leathery leaves. The main species is the holm oak. The cork oak, the Valencian oak and the Aleppo pine also grow here. A variety of shrubs are found here, such as the wild olive, rockrose and strawberry tree. • Endemic animal species live here, such as the Spanish imperial eagle and the Iberian lynx. Others include the rabbit, the red-legged partridge and the ocellated lizard. Ocellated lizard Red-legged partridge Holm oak Parque Nacional de Ordesa y Monte Perdido High mountain or alpine • Alpine areas have very cold winters and dry summers. In winter the ground is covered in snow and ice. The highest mountains are always covered in snow and sometimes have glaciers. However, these are beginning to melt. • In the high mountains there are no trees. Shrubs and many herbaceous plants often form meadows. • Many alpine animals have to hibernate or migrate to lower areas in winter. They include the chamois, the Iberian wild goat and the golden eagle. Chamois Ecosystems in Spain Deer Great spotted woodpecker 208 ES0000000100241 959327_Anexo1_112722.indd 208 28/12/21 9:28 C O N C E P T M A P > Copy and complete the concept map. made of … carbohydrates … nucleic acids … life processes bacteria unicellular … plant cell membrane cytoplasm … mitochondria organelles cell wall cell membrane cytoplasm … … kingdom phylum … order … genus species nutrition autotrophs herbivores … omnivores … LIVING THINGS CELLS LIFE PROCESSES … substances CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS taxonomic categories kingdoms water … Animal … Fungi … Monera carry out formed of inorganic substances eukaryotic multicellular sensitivity … cell wall … vacuole asexual … 19 4 ES0000000100257 959353_Unidad04_109950.indd 19 28/12/21 9:32 In addition, there is helpful support material available: The NATURE ATLAS at the end of the book will help you to better understand the world around you. A notebook with INNOVATIONS IN SCIENCE helps you to understand the importance of science in our society. It also includes a SCIENTIFIC GLOSSARY with activities. o r g a n i s e yo u r i d e a s 4 c h e c k yo u r p r o g r e s s 35 Name three characteristics that help us to tell the difference between a rock (or another inert object) and a living thing. 36 Copy and complete the following text in your notebook: Living things are mostly made of … matter, but they can also contain … matter. … matter includes complex substances that contain … . … matter includes simpler substances that do not contain … . 37 Identify the substance in each of these sentences. Are they organic or inorganic substances? a) It is the main source of energy for living things. b) It is the most abundant substance in living things. c) It forms bones and shells. d) It forms part of structures, such as muscles. e) It stores energy. f ) It controls cell function. 38 Investigate the work of the scientist Esther Lederberg. a) What type of cells did she study? b) What characteristics do these cells have? c) Her husband received the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine for work that they did together. Does that seem fair to you? Find out about similar cases. 26 V O C A B U L A R Y. Define these concepts: biosphere organic matter inorganic matter 27 D I A G R A M . Copy and complete the diagram in your notebook. First, fill in the gaps. Then, add another level to each of the three categories. characterised by They are made of … substances Living things They are formed of one or many … They carry out three … 28 TA B L E . Copy and complete the table. Mark the corresponding types of cells with an X. Prokaryotic Eukaryotic animal Eukaryotic plant Chloroplasts … … … Mitochondria … … … Cell membrane … … … Cell wall … … … The simplest type of cell … … … Genetic material … … … Nucleus … … … Large central vacuole … … … Cytoplasm … … … 29 What characteristics are common to all cells? See the table in the previous activity. 30 Why do we say that cells are alive? 31 D R AW I N G . Copy in your notebook these illustrations of cells. Label the parts of each cell. 32 Explain the different types of nutrition that living things carry out. What are the differences between them? 33 D I A G R A M . Copy and complete the diagram in your notebook. Write the names of the taxa in order from largest to the smallest. Kingdom … … … … … … 34 TA B L E . Make a table to show the characteristics of the five kingdoms of living things. Write the name of a kingdom at the top of each column. Use these headings for the rows: Cell type, Number of cells, Nutrition, Has tissues, Can move. 39 Are the following phrases true or false? Correct the false answers. a) Only animal cells have chloroplasts. b) All cells have a cell wall. c) All cells have a nucleus, a cell membrane and cytoplasm. d) Plant cells have a large vacuole that occupies most of the cell. e) Eukaryotic cells are simpler than prokaryotes. 40 Why do living things need matter and energy? Explain your answer using examples. 41 What is the relationship between autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms? 42 Look at the photos below and answer the questions. A C B D a) What type of nutrition does each of these living things carry out? b) What type of reproduction does each one use? 43 The bird in the photo is a bearded tit. Find the scientific name of the bird. Make an index card that includes the taxa to which it belongs. A B C Use the Study Notes to review the content of this unit. 89 88 ES0000000100241 959327_Unidad04_104476.indd 89 28/12/21 8:58 50 Cells are very small. We measure their size in micrometres (µm). A micrometre is one-thousandth of a millimetre. Look at the drawing. Then represent the size of each type of cell on a bar graph. 51 Some living things can cause us serious harm. For example, many bacteria can cause illnesses. a) What are diseases caused by bacteria called? b) Name three of these diseases. c) What medicines are used to cure diseases caused by bacteria? 44 Define the word "species". Then write down three examples of a species. Include their common and scientific names. 45 Look at the photos of living things and answer the questions. A D B E C F a) Which kingdom does each of the living things belong to? b) What do they have in common? c) Compare the living things in the top row with the images directly below. How is each pair similar and different? 46 Everyone in your class is part of the Animal kingdom. Imagine that the students belong to the phylum ESO 1. a) Invent criteria to classify the group into three different classes. For example, the clothes they wear, a physical characteristic, etc. b) Then, decide how to classify each class into two different orders. 48 Read the news article. Then answer the questions. a) What is an oocyte? b) If Yuka died approximately 10 000 years ago, how is it possible that the remains of her flesh and skin have been preserved? Find out about permafrost. c) Write down the taxonomic categories of a mammoth as far as its genus. d) What is DNA? e) In the final paragraph, what does "resurrect a mammoth" mean? Find out when mammoths became extinct. What do people believe caused the extinction? Posters about living things Work as a team to organise the challenge. Divide the class into groups of four or five people. Each group will make a poster. The posters can be different types. For example, they can explain why plants and other autotrophs are important for the planet and for other living things, or why detritivores and decomposers are important for the biosphere. You can also explain why some specific species of living things are important. In your groups, select living things from all the kingdoms. Do not forget to give their scientific name and some information about the way they carry out their life processes, their cell types, etc. Display your work. Take photos of the poster and create a virtual exhibition on the school's website. 4 c h e c k yo u r p r o g r e s s W E L L D O N E ! 47 B I O L O G Y A N D S O C I E T Y. Our society faces big environmental problems: oil supplies are running out, and oil (and the products we obtain from oil ) also causes pollution. a) Look for information about biofuels. b) Identify three living things from which we can obtain biofuel. c) What is the advantage of using biofuel to our society? 49 BIOLOGY AND CINEMA . Jurassic Park is a science fiction film directed by Steven Spielberg that was released in 1993. Watch the film or look for information about it. Then answer the questions: a) What group of extinct animals does the film recreate? b) Where did the scientists in the film get the cells that they used to re-create the animals? c) Look for information about other living things that have become extinct. Make an index card for each living thing in your notebook. Write down its name, its classification, where it lived and when it became extinct. 1 µm 10 µm 100 µm Signs of biological activity are found in the cel l s of a wool ly mammoth Can mammoths be revived by transferring the nuclei of cells from their tissues to the oocytes of a modern species? There is a long way to go before this can be achieved. However, a group of scientists from Kindai University in Osaka ( Japan) has carried out an experiment. They implanted woolly mammoth cell nuclei into mouse oocytes, and found signs of biological activity. Although the mammoth died thousands of years ago, cell activity can still occur. In 2012, the remains of a woolly mammoth calf were found preser ved in the permafrost in Siberia . Yuka – as the calf was named – died at least 10 000 years ago […]. Her body still had a lot of meat and skin . It was a great discover y, unlike similar remains where only the bones were preser ved . To resurrect a mammoth , we need to find well-preser ved biological samples that have undamaged DNA. Scientific techniques also need to be developed . But the fact that there is biological activity in cells that are thousands of years old opens the way to further research in this area . muyinteresante.es, 20th March 2019 (Adapted) CHALLENGE 91 90 ES0000000100241 959327_Unidad04_104476.indd 90-91 28/12/21 8:58 FINAL ACTIVITIES 5 THE CHALLENGE 6 33 Magma. Underground molten rock that contains dissolved gases, mainly carbon dioxide and water vapour. When magma flows onto Earth's surface, it is called lava . Mammals. A group of vertebrates. The females have glands that can produce milk to feed their young. Mantle. A solid layer of the geosphere between the crust and the core. The mantle is about 2 900 kilometres thick and its main component is peridotite. Melting. The process through which a change of state from solid to liquid occurs. Mesosphere. A layer of the atmosphere located above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. Metamorphic. A type of rock formed when other rocks are transformed (without melting ) by high temperatures, high pressure or hot fluids. These rocks include slate and gneiss. Metamorphosis. The process that some animals, like caterpillars, go through as they develop. The transformation starts when they leave the egg and ends when they reach their adult form. Microorganism. A living thing that can only be seen under a microscope. For example, bacteria . Mineral . Solid , pure and naturally occurring substances. They can be made from a single chemical element or from various chemical elements. Rocks are made of minerals. Mineral salts. Inorganic substances that are found in living and non-living things. In living things, mineral salts form ver y hard structures, such as shells, teeth and bones. Mitochondria. Cellular organelles of eukar yotes that produce energy through cellular respiration . Molluscs. A group of invertebrates that have a soft unsegmented body. The body is divided into the head , the foot and a visceral mass. For example, snails, mussels and octopuses. From the Latin molluscus: soft. Mould. Multicellular and microscopic fungi that feed on decomposed organic matter. Mycelium. A network of hyphae of a fungus. It is found underground , where the fungus obtains food . Mycorrhiza. The symbiotic relationship between a fungus and the root of a plant. The roots provide organic matter to the fungus, while the fungus helps the roots to absorb water and mineral salts. Myriapods. A group of invertebrates that have a body made up of segments. Each segment contains one pair of legs (centipedes) or two pairs (millipedes). From the Greek myria: ver y numerous and podo: foot. > Write three examples of hermaphrodite animals. > Search and find out whether mitochondria have a membrane. > What do lichen and mycorrhiza have in common? M
In WORLD MAKERS, each unit is designed as a science project with a CHALLENGE that guides learning and the development of core skills. Each science project is structured as a work plan in which you will investigate and answer various questions about Earth , living things and the environment. This will enable you to develop your knowledge of science and use it as a citizen of the 21st centur y. A science project begins with a learning situation that relates the subject to the reality of your daily life, your immediate environment or the world in which you are growing up. From there, the problem-solving process follows the steps of the scientific method . By doing this, you will find answers and successfully meet the proposed challenge, while acquiring new knowledge and skills in Biology and Geology. Throughout each project you will cooperate responsibly with your classmates, working in specific roles and respecting the diversity and opinions of your team members. The tasks you will carr y out to complete the science projects, both individually and in groups, are as follows: FIND AND SELECT scientific information from reliable sources Websites of official organisations, educational institutions, etc. Specialised reference books, scientific journals, etc. People you know around you, specialists in the field, etc. INTERPRET information in different formats Texts Photos Tables Graphs Maps Drawings Diagrams The science project 8
“Scientific methods are the main force behind our social and economic progress, which makes them essential learning for the citizens of tomorrow. The processes that make up scientific work make sense when they are integrated into a project that is related to the reality of the students’ lives or their environment. The development of a project requires initiative, judgement, review, planning, the use of material and human resources, and reasoning, among other skills. It also allows students to gain self-knowledge and confidence in problem-solving, adapting to the resources available and their own limitations, uncertainty and challenges.” (LOMLOE 2021, Adapted .) To carr y out the science projects presented in WORLD MAKERS, you will apply the scientific method . PRESENT AND SHARE the results of the project using different methods Exhibition Itinerary Workshop Pictures Calendar Competition Filing system Video Organised tours CARRY OUT AND DESIGN experiments and MAKE conclusions • Use these methods of obser vation and data collection . • Collect data in dif ferent formats, both qualitative and quantitative. Then analyse the data . • Make conclusions, keeping in mind that the relationship between two variables or their correlation does not always mean that one variable is the cause of the other. Microscope observation Field observation Laboratory experiments Model construction Interpretation of dichotomous keys Animal dissection 9
The scientific method Have you ever wondered why the sky is blue? Or why dinosaurs became extinct? If you have, you are starting to think in a scientific way. Scientists aim to answer these types of questions. In the 4th centur y BC, Aristotle had already suggested some initial ideas on the methodology to follow in the study of science. The scientific method is a step-by-step set of processes that researchers follow to find answers to research questions. There are many ways of conducting research , so we cannot speak of one single method . However, generally there are six steps that we follow. Depending on the research to be carried out, any of the steps can be omitted , repeated or done in a dif ferent order. At the end of the research , the results must be published and made available to the rest of the scientific community so that knowledge can advance and be accessible to the largest number of people. In general , scientific articles are published in scientific journals, such as Science, Nature, etc. Obser ve Ask a question Make a hypothesis We become aware of a fact or a phenomenon by using our senses. Scientists often have great obser vation skills. Obser vation can be done directly or indirectly, using a microscope, for example. Scientists ask why, how, when , where, etc., about a particular phenomenon . They define the question to be answered . Then they collect and classify the data generated by this phenomenon . A general answer to the research question is proposed . This answer is called the hypothesis. It should be as simple as possible, with a clear statement that can be tested later. Experiment Analyse the results Define scientific laws Experiments are designed to enable us to prove or reject the hypothesis. Experiments are controlled obser vations that simulate the phenomenon . They generate data and results. The results are studied and conclusions are made. This allows us to accept or reject the hypothesis. If it is rejected , we modify it or form a new one. Then the previous steps are repeated . When the hypothesis is confirmed , the scientists can then establish scientific laws or theories. They can also make scientific models of the phenomenon studied . These laws can be written as a mathematical formula or as a statement. The science project 10
At the end of an experiment, each group is responsible for putting their equipment away, and for cleaning and tidying their desks. Always wash your hands after using chemical products and before leaving the laborator y. Always clean the equipment thoroughly after use and wipe up any spillages immediately. Turn of f the taps and switch of f gas burners. Optical microscope Dissection equipment Microscopic sample with glass slide and coverslip Test tube Burette Stand Test-tube rack Bunsen burner Tripod Wire gauze Glass rod Beaker Erlenmeyer f lask Petri dish Pipettes Thermometer Filter paper Funnel Scales Clamp Laboratory equipment The laboratory Laborator y work needs to be ver y accurate; we must carr y it out correctly. Before you begin , read the instructions carefully and check you have ever ything you will need . Do not start working until you understand exactly what you have to do. • Classify the items below according to their uses: measuring, containing liquids, heating, etc. 11
Safety rules in the laboratory During laborator y experiments, you may handle chemical products or perform tasks that involve some risk. For this reason , it is necessar y to follow a set of rules to keep people and equipment safe. Highly toxic Harmful or irritant Flammable Oxidiser Corrosive Explosive • Magnifying glasses and microscopes are fragile, so handle them with care. Don’t hit them or force any parts. • Hold glass coverslips and glass slides at the edges or use tweezers to avoid getting grease on them and contaminating them. • Never heat a completely sealed container. To heat a test tube, use a suitable holder to avoid it touching your skin. Always point the mouth of a container away from yourself and other people. • Never pour a liquid quickly into a test tube. Pour it slowly down the side of the tube. • Never use the same dropper for different reagents, as this can cause contamination or result in dangerous reactions. • Never transfer products to other bottles that are not labelled correctly. • Don’t play with the equipment or chemical products. • Always put stoppers you are using on the table facing upwards. Replace them as soon as you finish using the containers. • Keep your workspace clean and tidy. • Chemical products can be dangerous. Before using them, read the safety labels carefully to understand the possible risks and the precautions you need to take. • Handle corrosive products with care to avoid contact with your skin or clothes. Avoid touching, smelling or tasting any chemical or biological material. • Solid waste should be put in the appropriate bins. • Ask your teacher before pouring leftover liquids down the sink. Some waste products can be harmful to the environment and must be processed in a special way. Safety labels on chemical products The science project 12
Fieldwork Reproducing the phenomena you want to study in a laborator y using the scientific method can be ver y dif ficult, or even impossible. In these cases, it is necessar y to obser ve and collect data in the place where the phenomenon occurs. We call this fieldwork. In areas such as astronomy or ecology, experimentation is not possible. Research is based mainly on obser vation and analysis of the data collected . When carr ying out fieldwork it is ver y important to know exactly what steps you will follow, so you will need clear instructions. It is also essential to have a good map to find your way around the area , as well as maps of its topography, geology and vegetation . Various instruments or tools are used to collect the information that will help us to answer the research question . The field notebook allows us to record everything we observe during our research, and then study and analyse the results. Take a note of the place, date, weather at that time, characteristics of the relief, type of ecosystem, and the fauna and vegetation observed. For example, if we are researching the behaviour of an animal, in addition to the place and date, we should record aspects such as what it eats, what sounds it makes, when it sleeps, whether it behaves aggressively or not, etc. The freehand illustrations we make on site are an important part of the field notebook. These can include a drawing of the surroundings, a sketch of an animal or plant, or any other details. Some of the most commonly used instruments are the compass, GPS, magnifying glass, binoculars and the telescope. Photos and recordings, both in video and audio format, are also used . They provide information about objects, sounds, etc., and facilitate further analysis of what has been obser ved . • Field guides are also used in this type of research. Search for information and explain what they are used for. • Think of a natural environment close to where you live. For example, a forest, a beach, a park, etc. Explain what instruments you could take to collect data. Record your observations on a page of your field notebook. 13
Robert Hooke (1635–1703) Scientist He studied at Oxford University, where he became an assistant in the laborator y of the chemist Robert Boyle. In 1662 he became a director of the Royal Society. His experiments covered many fields, including physics, medicine, astronomy and biology. Based on his microscopic obser vations, in his work Micrographia he detailed the structures of various insects, fossils and plants. In one of his microscopic obser vations, Hooke was studying the porous structure of cork. He discovered that it was made up of polyhedral cavities, which he called “cells”. This term describes the basic unit of all living things. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) Biologist Although he had no scientific training, he is considered the father of microbiology. He was a curious Dutch fabric seller. He developed his own microscope from lenses he used to examine fabrics. He mounted biconvex lenses on metal plates that were held very close to the eye. He observed objects that he placed on the head of a pin. He perfected the lenses and polished them. He made lenses of up to 500x magnification and looked at everything in his reach. On one occasion while obser ving water from a puddle, he discovered protozoa and bacteria , which he called animalcules. James Hutton (1726–1797) Geologist He is considered the father of geology. He explained how the processes of sedimentation , volcanism and erosion were involved in the formation of the Earth’s surface. He introduced the concept of metamorphism by suggesting that some sedimentar y rocks were buried and experienced transformations. He also established the basis of plutonism, which considered all rocks to be the result of volcanic processes. He claimed that the centre of the Earth was made up of igneous matter originating from the fusion of rocks. He also considered the Earth to be much older than previously thought. All these ideas were explained in his work Theory of the Earth (1788). Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) Naturalist, botanist and zoologist In the 18th centur y, he established the basis of today ’s taxonomy and nomenclature in his work Systema Naturae. In it he described and named more than 9 000 species of plants and animals. He proposed a new system of classification in which he grouped species into genera , genera into families, families into classes, classes into phyla and phyla into kingdoms. He unified the nomenclature of living things, creating the scientific or binomial nomenclature. In this system, two Latin words are used to name a species. The first indicates the genus and the second refers to the species. The first names he established are still used today. The science project Great scientists Throughout histor y, many people have stood out because of their scientific careers, as they helped to advance knowledge in biology, geology and environmental sciences. 14
Dian Fossey (1932–1985) Zoologist Dian Fossey travelled to Africa in 1966 and began an extensive field study on the behaviour of mountain gorillas. She was a ver y patient and meticulous researcher. Through obser ving the gorillas, she gained the acceptance of several groups and became able to recognise the unique characteristics of each animal . She published her reports in National Geographic magazine. This helped to raise awareness among thousands of people about the need to protect these animals, many of whom were being killed by poachers and in serious danger of extinction . In 1967 she founded the Karisoke Research Center, where she carried out her research . It became an international centre for studying these great apes. Mary Agnes Chase (1869–1963) Botanist Mar y Agnes Chase studied at the University of Chicago. She was a prominent botanist specialising in the scientific study of grasses. Her drawing skills led her to work as a botanical illustrator at the Chicago Museum of Natural Histor y, and later at the United States Department of Agriculture. She classified more than 10 000 plant species and discovered several new species. She wrote an essential book in her field: First book of grasses: the structure of grasses explained for beginners (1959). She also fought for women’s civil rights and helped many young women who were interested in science. Joanne Chory (1955) Botanist Joanne Chor y received her PhD in Microbiolog y from the University of Il linoi s in 1984. However, she has dedicat ed her li fe to plant knowledge and climat e change reduction . Her studies focus on how plants change their si ze and shape, and how they optimi se growth and photosynthesi s in cer tain env ironments. She is developing a plant capable of absorbing greater amounts of carbon dioxide by bur ying it, as well as resisting droughts and f loods. Such plants could slow down climate change. She is also working on improving the ef ficiency of crops. Jane Goodall (1934) Ethologist At the age of 23, she travelled to Kenya , where she met Louis Leakey, who proposed a study of wild chimpanzees in the Gombe Stream Game Reser ve. After completing her PhD, she returned to Kenya and turned the reser ve into a protected national park. In 1977 she founded the Jane Goodall Institute for Wildlife Research , dedicated to the study of chimpanzees. In her observations, she gathered information on the chimpanzees’ use of tools, social structure, hunting, fighting between groups, dominance, upbringing, adoption, etc. Such behaviour fascinated the scientific community through her National Geographic documentaries. This is a selection of some of the people most relevant to the contents of your book. In the units you will meet some more scientists. Can you add any more examples? 15
Earth and landscapes 1 Make a proposal to restore a landscape L E A R N I N G S I T UAT I O N On 19th September 2021, the Cumbre Vieja volcano erupted on the island of La Palma in Spain. Many people followed the eruption on dif ferent media and social networks. Ever y day, news and images arrived that were both a spectacle of nature and a drama for the thousands of people who saw the lava f lows destroying their homes, shops and schools. Anthony and Megan have family in La Palma and they followed this terrible situation ver y closely. They have decided to ask their classmates to study the dif ferent areas of Spain where a natural disaster has occurred and to prepare a recover y plan for them. 16 CHALLE NGE
Which celestial bodies in the Universe can you name? Describe what you can remember about each one. WORK WITH THE IMAGE . Look at the photo on the right. – W here do you think the image was taken from? – W hat celestial body does it show? – W hat do the white, blue and brown areas represent? What movements does the Earth make? What causes them? What type of celestial body is the Moon? Where does the light of the Moon come from? L E T ' S G E T S TA R T E D IN THIS UNIT. . . 1 Earth 2 The Earth-Moon system 3 Earth's systems and landforms 4 Landscapes 5 Natural hazards and human activity WORK WITH THE IMAGE . Look at the photo on the left. – Do you think it is a natural landscape? Analyse all its features and decide which are natural and which have been made by people. – Discuss with your classmates. How do you feel when you look at this landscape? Do you all feel the same? Why do you think each of you feel that way? – The steep landforms in this landscape show that it is a young landscape. It is the Alps mountain range. Look for information about the location of this mountain range and when it was formed. Take act ion Your proposal s to restore places af fected by geological di sasters wil l help to protect the natural and cultural landscapes of Spain . Targets 11.4 and 11.5: "Strengthen ef forts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage. By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people af fected and substantial ly decrease the direct economic losses [...] caused by di sasters, [...] with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations." 17
CHALLENGE The Earth has a great diversity of landscapes. It is also the only celestial body in the Solar System where life exists. This is because of specific characteristics. Earth can maintain an average temperature of 15 ºC because it is at the right distance from the Sun , and it has gases that retain heat. This temperature is suitable for life. Earth is the largest of the rocky planets. Its size helps it to retain essential gases like oxygen, which is essential for respiration in many living things. The Earth has a relatively large satellite, the Moon , which is responsible for important phenomena such as the tides in the oceans. Our planet also has a lot of geological activity, which manifests itself in the form of earthquakes, volcanoes, raised relief, erosion , etc. Water on Earth can exist in three states: solid , liquid and gaseous. The balance between these states allows the water cycle to exist, which is an essential process for life. The Earth has a magnetic field that protects it from particles and the radiation from the Sun that can be ver y dangerous for living things. 1 E xplain the characteristics that make it possible for Earth to have such a variety of landscapes and for life to exist. 2 I n pairs, design a model to explain how the cycle of day and night occurs. Think about suitable materials to use. Use materials that you have at home or at school. 3 W hen it is hot in Spain, why is it cold in Argentina? Explain, using a diagram. 4 I magine that Earth's axis of rotation is perpendicular to the plane of its orbit. Do you think there would be seasons? What if it is parallel? Find out why. 18 1. Earth
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